Book Reviews

This section collects my reviews of the books that have counted in the way I look at finance. The first is Fooled by Randomness by Nassim Nicholas Taleb.

Copertina di Giocati dal caso di Nassim Nicholas Taleb, il Saggiatore

Fooled by Randomness

Nassim Nicholas Taleb, 2001

I came to finance after reading authors who work on behavioural finance, among them Robert Shiller, Richard Thaler and Daniel Kahneman, but above all the less conventional Nassim Nicholas Taleb, loved by many and hated by many, or perhaps better said misunderstood. In this review I go back over some of his cornerstones on finance, which it is always useful to keep in mind in order to train ourselves to have an empirical and rational view in a sector that lends itself to being held hostage by a sensational narrative.

Although everyone knows Taleb for his bestseller The Black Swan, where he writes about the risk of rare events and our inability to foresee them, his first book, Fooled by Randomness, is the real treasure chest of his provocative and cautionary message about finance.

The key message Taleb brings is in fact a banality that is obvious to everyone, but which we tend to forget, or better, not to see. Taleb fights to remind us that finance, which is nothing other than a branch of economics, is a social science and therefore is not a pure science, unlike physics, chemistry, biology and so on. This means that in finance there are no definite rules, there are no known probabilities, nothing is impossible, everything and its opposite can happen. Or better, to use his own words, we are fooled by randomness. Is that all? Books and books to say in fact only this obvious thing? How is it possible that Taleb became so famous if he goes around saying these banalities?

It may seem banal, but the fact is that we human beings by our nature tend to confuse chance with skill, what is the fruit of a stochastic process with what is deterministic. In a few words, factual reality against probabilistic reality. This happens to everyone, to insiders as well, to those who have studied the most as well. We are made this way, we are not able to reason with scientific rigour. Millennia of evolutionary history have led us to trust factual reality.

Below I summarise a list of Taleb's key thoughts, taken from his first work, Fooled by Randomness.

Russian roulette

To explain the concept of factual reality and probabilistic reality, Taleb gives the example of a man who plays Russian roulette in exchange for a million. The player therefore has a 1/6 probability of killing himself and a 5/6 probability of becoming rich. This is well known, because the physics of the gun is known a priori: we know that the cylinder holds six chambers and only one bullet. What changes in financial markets is that we do not know the cylinder of the gun, nor how many bullets are in it. Taleb calls it the problem of the generator: we do not know the probabilities inherent in the markets, we do not know what probability we have of losing. We convince ourselves that historical observations of the past can reveal to us the probability that the market will fall or rise, but in reality they are two completely different things. The gun has known probabilities, the markets do not. We try to estimate these probabilities on the basis of past events, but who says that the historical path seen up to today is predictive of the future one? Who tells us that what we have seen up to today is a reliable sample for making assumptions about how the markets will behave?

To give a practical example, the famous crisis of 2008 is often taken as the reference for running stress tests on existing portfolios. Although that crisis was very severe, within five and a half years the S&P 500, considered the world benchmark of equity markets, was back at its highs. The question Taleb asks is this: who says that the next crisis will be like the one in 2008? Why should it not be like the one in 1929, from which the Dow Jones recovered only after twenty-five years? Or why should it not be even worse? Who guarantees us that the next crisis will not last fifty years?

Even assuming that in the long term population and scientific progress always grow, carrying the market along with them, nobody guarantees that in the meantime there cannot be crises that outlast the life of an investor, forty years for example. Obviously nobody wishes for it, but we must have the awareness and the intellectual honesty to admit that this can happen, even if to our lived experience it seems an extremely improbable scenario. So much so that it is very easy for a generation that has suffered neither wars nor famines, but perhaps only a long period of economic growth, to end up assuming that the market is deterministic, forgetting that this is instead only one of a thousand possible worlds.

Skill vs luck (chance)

Another concept that comes back continually in Taleb's books is the concept of chance. Here too it is a blinding banality: Taleb insists on repeating that finance, unlike other fields, is governed by chance. But although this may be obvious, we human beings tend to judge on the basis of our past experience, so we are victims of factual reality, and this leads us continually to forget that chance governs the markets, and therefore that behind a manager's bad or good performance there is not necessarily their skill, but chance.

Taleb gives the example of a swindling manager who, to make himself known, sends different letters to his fellow citizens, writing how the market will go this month. Given that he sends thousands of letters, at the end of the year several citizens write to him asking him to manage their money, since for twelve consecutive months he managed to guess the direction of the market. At the same time others have realised he is a charlatan, because the messages that reached them were wrong. But by the law of large numbers, if we have many people to send a letter to, this trick in the end pays off with some poor unfortunate. Exactly as if we put a sextillion monkeys to bang on a typewriter: one of them would certainly write the Odyssey.

And yet in finance it is typical for great investors, successful managers and other figures to be idolised, when they are nothing other than the survivors of a much larger pool of candidates, among whom many have lost a great deal of money. Taleb says that in finance whoever is competent is never found among the top performers, but is often in the average or a little above, while at the top sits whoever took enormous risks and for whom things in the end went well. It is not real competence, it is luck. And yet, although it is luck, we do not realise it. On the contrary, we are fascinated by those who succeed and we end up thinking that whoever succeeds is really good.

Think of managed funds. The father of a family goes to the bank to invest his money and has two choices: either to invest it in an index, or to buy the fund of some rockstar of finance who over the last eight years has outperformed the market. Anyone would instinctively think it is obvious that this fund is the better choice, and yet it is not so. The fact that the fund has outperformed the market over the last eight years does not mean that this will happen in the future too. It could have outperformed for eight years and then, in the ninth, lose twice as much as the market. In that case the asset management industry will take that fund off its list of funds to offer to clients and will replace it with another fund from another rockstar who will have outperformed over the last six years. There will always be a new fund that outperforms the market.

How many managers are there in the world? How many funds? It is like saying: we have a coin, how many independent sequences of tosses do we have to make for heads to come up eight times in one of them? The answer is 28 = 256, a ridiculous number, considering that asset managers in the world are estimated at around 19,000 and equity funds at 48,000.

The black swan

Although The Black Swan is the title of the second and most famous of Taleb's books, in reality the concept is already stated in his first work, Fooled by Randomness, which holds all of the author's most important messages. He had in fact already fired all his cartridges with the first work and then, after its success, he diluted and revisited the concepts in order to sell other books. The black swan concept consists in stating that judgements cannot be passed while the game is still being played when we are talking about finance, whereas in other fields we can reach conclusions before all the results have come in. For example, I know that water boils at 100 degrees, I do not need it to reach 100 today as well in order to state it. In finance, on the other hand, no: it is not because things went one way in the past that I then have the guarantee they will happen again in the future. And yet here too cognitive biases lead us to sabotage ourselves, making us believe that finance obeys the same laws as chemistry, when they are two completely different disciplines, not only in content but precisely in nature.

The celebrated black swan is precisely an example brought by Taleb to explain this human mania. In Europe, until 1697, everyone thought that swans were white. Why until 1697? Well, it is simple: because in 1697 Europeans discovered that black swans existed in Australia. Fortunately nobody lost money from this fact, and yet for millennia we had been convinced of the opposite.

Another recurring example, very dear to Taleb, is that of King Croesus, king of Lydia, who reigned from around 560 BC to 546 BC and is famous because in antiquity he was considered the richest man in the world. One day King Croesus asked the philosopher Solon whether he should be held to be the happiest, richest and most powerful man in the world. Solon said that he could not answer. The reason Solon said he could not answer was not that he did not know, but that, even if in that moment Croesus could be so, one would have had to wait for his death to say that he had lived in that condition, and this statement made King Croesus angry. Years and years later Cyrus the Great conquered Lydia and captured Croesus, who, according to legend, cried out: Solon, you were right.

The third example is that of the turkey, and I admit that it is the one I personally like most. Taleb tells of the quiet and comfortable life of a turkey and of the farmer who owns it. The turkey is born and grows up in a protected environment, serene and free of worries. The farmer comes every day to bring it food and is seen by the turkey as a benefactor. This conviction takes root more and more in the mind of the turkey which, after all, since it was born has always seen the farmer take care of it, and every day that passes this conviction is reinforced further, meal after meal, until on Thanksgiving day the farmer takes the turkey and breaks its neck to turn it into dinner for himself and his family.

All these examples have the same purpose, that is to explain how on the markets there are no certainties. The fact that a market has always grown at certain rates is no guarantee that this will happen in the future. Think of the S&P 500 or, even better, of the Nasdaq. In recent years these indices have been growing at dizzying rates, making their investors rich, investors who are ever more convinced that America is an indestructible tank and its technology companies the jewel in the crown of the world economy, destined to carry us into the future. Neither I nor Taleb say the contrary. It may be: perhaps the American economy will grow without a hitch for the next seventy years and we will all die with this conviction corroborated by our lived experience. Or perhaps not. All of this serves only to make it understood that we are at the mercy of chance. Taleb is not a spoilsport, he is not a pessimist who hates those who make money by investing and who hopes that we may all become poor by losing money on the stock market. He is only a scholar of probability.